Mr Tokayev ordered Kazakh soldiers to shoot people carrying weapons without warning to subdue attacks on government buildings and to fight what he said were terrorists speaking foreign languages. Protesters, though, have said that the government has used the cover of “anti-terrorist” operations to subdue peaceful demonstrations.

In Almaty, the focus of the military operation, the internet was restored for half a day on Monday. 

Eyewitnesses described a tense but improving situation in Kazakhstan’s largest city.

“The city is still blocked off and the army is on the streets. The city centre has been damaged. Banks and malls have been robbed. It’s post-apocalyptic,” said one Almaty resident who has been sheltering in his apartment with his wife and three young daughters. 

Magnum, one of Kazakhstan’s largest retailers, said that of its 68 shops in Almaty, 26 were looted last week.

As part of its investigation into a possible coup, Kazakh police last week arrested Karim Massimov, head of the Kazakh security service and a former prime minister, and charged him with treason.

Kazakh media has also reported that two senior police chiefs had committed suicide, deaths possibly linked to the coup investigation.